Topic 8

The Truman Era: The Cold War and Anti-Communist Hysteria at Home

 

 

 

A. Truman: An Introduction

 

  1. There are many things to remember about the Truman presidency. The years in which Truman served as president are among some of the most important in recent American history. Probably the two most important are that it was during Truman’s presidency that one war ended and another began; WWII ended but as it ended the great wartime alliance fell apart and what became known as the Cold War began. The administration compiled a very respectable record, but communist gains during the Cold War would lead to a wave of anti-communist hysteria at home that would help bring down the Truman presidency.

 

  1. Election of 1944

 

–        Roosevelt a very sick man by that time: high blood pressure, congestive heart failure etc. Could only work about ½ hour at a time before resting.

–        Vice Presidential nomination crucial: a good chance the VP would become president in the very near future.

–        VP Henry Wallace unacceptable to many: too liberal and too weird!

–        Roosevelt came up with a compromise candidate: Senator Harry Truman of Missouri, a man not closely identified with either the conservative or liberal wings of the Democratic Party.

–        Republicans: Governor Thomas E. Dewey of NY

–        Another overwhelming Roosevelt victory: 432-99.

–        Truman had little to do but “hang around” – was not in the loop, so to speak.

–        Suddenly in April 1945 he was the president and had to deal with the conclusion of the war and the beginning of the Cold War.

 

 

B. The Cold War: A Definition

 

 

  1. A quick, simple definition of the Cold War: The conflict between western democracy on the one hand, and Soviet-backed communism on the other hand, that never quite developed into a full-scale war.

 

  1. It lasted from the end of World War II until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989.

 

–        During this period the Cold War was bitter and confrontational but was mostly fought with words; ugly charges and counter-charges were hurled back and forth.

 

–        It brought on limited wars, such as in Korea and Vietnam that had tragic consequences. However, neither of these became a full-scale, global war. Neither became WWIII.

 

C. Poland: Where the Cold War Began – Heart of the Polish was who would control Poland after the war. To understand importance of this question, must understand Soviet goals in Eastern Europe.

 

  1. Wanted to make Eastern Europe a Soviet sphere of influence in order to protect the Soviet homeland against future attacks from the West.

 

–        To the Soviets, Poland was the key; was the corridor through which many invasions of Russia had been launched for hundreds of years, and they were determined to protect the Soviet homeland by placing a pro-Soviet government in control of Poland at the end of the war.

 

–        A complicating factor: it is essential to remember that Premier Stalin was a “gold plated” paranoid. Never trusted the West and was convinced that the West would try to destroy the Soviet Union at the first opportunity.

 

 

 

  1. Yalta Conference – February 1945

 

–        Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met for the last time, and Poland was a source of disagreement.

 

 

–        Two Polish groups: pro-Soviet group in based in the Polish city of Lubin. Pro-western group, the Polish government-in-exile. Often called the London Poles because they had headquarters in London. Lubin Poles had the stronger position as they were backed by the Soviet Army.

 

–        At first the Soviets would give the London Poles no voice in the postwar government of Poland. But a compromise of sorts worked out that said the Lubin government was to be reorganized to include pro-Western Polish leaders. This reorganization was supposed to be accomplished through free elections to be held at some future date in Poland.

 

•         After conference, one of FDR’s military advisers told Roosevelt that the agreement on Poland was so vague that the Soviets could stretch it from Yalta to Washington without technically breaking it. “I know but it is the best I can do for Poland at this time.”

 

•         And given the fact that the Soviet Army occupied Poland at that time that was the best he could do, unless we wanted to go to war with the Soviets over the Polish question.

 

 

A key point, often overlooked in the history of World War II: Stalin had pressured the West to invade Western Europe as soon as possible and take military pressure off of the Soviets on the Eastern Front. We delayed as long as we could in order to build up an overwhelming force, assure victory in the invasion, and save American and British lives in the process. In the meantime, hundreds of thousands of Russians died driving the Germans out of Eastern Europe. In short, we exchanged bodies for territories; we saved western lives but sacrificed territory to the Soviets in the process. Thus, at the end of the war, the Soviets occupied the territory, not the U.S. and Britain!

 

 

–        German question – FDR, Churchill, and Stalin agreed to divide Germany into four occupation zones: Soviets in the east; western allies – U.S., Great Britain, and France - would have zones in the west. Berlin, located inside the Soviet zone, would be divided as well. Soviets would occupy East Berlin, the western allies, West Berlin.

 

  1. When FDR returned from Yalta he made what turned out to be his last speech to Congress reporting on the Yalta conference. Basically said he felt good about the conference and expressed the belief that the allies would continue to work together on postwar problems.

 

–        But shortly after the delivered this speech, the alliance started to unravel over the Polish question.

 

–        Despite the promises Stalin made, no elections held and the Soviets and the Lubin Poles did not give the London Poles any voice in the government of Poland. 

 

–        When Roosevelt and Churchill complained, Stalin shot back that the Soviets were being excluded from peace talks being carried on with German forces in northern Italy, and he charged that a secret deal was being worked out that would enable the Germans to transfer their troops from Italy to the eastern front to fight the Soviets.

 

–        These bitter exchanges growing out of the Polish question indicate that the wartime alliance was beginning to come apart at the seams, but FDR did not live to see the outcome of either the war or the split in the Alliance. April 12, 1945 he died at his vacation home in Warm Springs, GA.

 

–        In the months following Roosevelt’s death, as the war concluded in Europe and Asia, the western allies and the Soviets were not able to resolve their differences and the wartime alliance fell apart.

 

–        The wartime alliance was replaced by the confrontation between East and West that became known as the Cold War in the period 1945-47.

 

 

 

 

D. The Truman Response: Containment in Europe and the Near East

 

  1. The American response to the beginning of the Cold War would be the policy of containment – The U.S. would try to contain the expansion of Soviet power and influence. In other words, we would try to prevent any areas outside of Eastern Europe from falling under Soviet control.

 

  1. In Europe and the Near East, the U.S. took four major steps to carry out the policy of containment:

 

–        Establishment of the Truman Doctrine

 

•         Put into effect in Turkey and Greece – Two countries Truman believed the Soviets were determined to control. The British had protected Western interests in these countries in the past, but could no longer do so because of the near bankruptcy of the British government.

•         In a speech to Congress in March 1947, Truman said it would be the policy of the U.S. to support free peoples who were defending their freedom against either armed minorities or outside pressures.

•         Got Congress to appropriate $400 million to modernize the military forces of both and improve their economies.

•         Greek government suppressed the civil war and the Turks were able to stand up to Soviet pressures.

 

–        The establishment of the Marshall Plan – George C. Marshall, Secretary of State, January 1947. To understand, should remember that Western Europe was a rubble heap; food and fuel in short supply and industrial production was far below pre-war levels. These were the kinds of conditions in which communism flourished. To get Western Europe back on its feet and stop the spread of communism, Marshall and Truman got Congress to appropriate about $13 billion to be given to our friends in Europe. (Close to $200 billion today.)

 

•         A huge success. By 1952 industrial and agricultural production in Western Europe were back up to pre-war levels, and a return to prosperity played a major role in containing the spread of communism in the region.

 

–        Unification of the western part of Germany – Western allies wanted to reunify Germany; Soviets did not. Western nations wanted Germany to be rebuilt and reunited as soon as possible. A prosperous Germany was the key to restoring prosperity to Western Europe. On the other hand, the Russians had been the victims of German aggression in two world wars and were not anxious to see Germany reunited. What they wanted was to keep Germany divided, build up communist strength in the east Germany in the hopes that from this base communism would spread to the west Germany and other parts of Europe. West proceeded on its own.

 

Began process of unifying the western occupation zones in the spring of 1948 and led to the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) with capital in Bonn.

 

Soviet countermove – Berlin blockade. Soviets cut off western access to West Berlin by way of the highways leading through the Soviet occupation zone. Intended to stop creation of West Germany or, if they could not do that, force western allies out of West Berlin. Accomplished neither.

 

Truman’s response – Berlin airlift. American and British military aircraft began flying supplies to West Berlin. Continued for 324 days (June 1948-May 1949). Soviets did not dare shoot down the planes – that would mean World War III! And realizing that they had created a dangerous situation that might lead to war, the Soviets finally lifted the blockade.

 

Shortly after the Soviets lifted the blockade, however, they created the Germany Democratic Republic (East Germany) in the fall of 1949. Remained divided until 1989.

 

–        Creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization – While the German controversy was going on, the western allies began making plans to create a military alliance to contain the spread of Soviet power in Europe.

 

•         North Atlantic Treaty – April 1949 – U.S., Canada, Great Britain, France, Netherlands, Belgium, Portugal, and Italy. (West Germany in 1955.)

•         Provided that an attack against one would be considered an attack against all and together all would decide on the appropriate response.

 

•         Soviet response – Creation of the Warsaw Pact made up of the Soviet Union and the new communist governments of East Europe – East Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia etc.

 

•         A final word on the European situation: the creation of NATO marks a monumental change in American foreign policy. Since the days of George Washington, we had avoided permanent alliances with other nations. The Farewell Address! With the creation of NATO, we had abandoned Washington-style isolationism in favor of collective security – working on a permanent basis with our allies to protect our common interests. 

 

–        In sum: the policies followed by the Truman administration in the Near East and in Europe were a tremendous success.

 

–                    In contrast in Asia, the record was not quite as bright.

 

E. The Domestic Scene: Election of 1948

 

 

  1. Democrats – When they failed to persuade anyone else of importance to seek the nomination, they nominated Truman. Platform:

 

–        Strongly supported civil rights – anti-lynching and anti-poll tax laws and the creation of a Federal Fair Employment Practices Commission to fight against job discrimination.

 

  1. Dixiecrats – Proved to be more than some southern Democrats could stomach. Some stalked out of the convention, returned to their homes and organized the States Rights Party. Governor Strom Thurmond of SC chosen as nominee.

 

  1. Progressive Party – Former VP Henry Wallace. Believed that the U.S. was being too harsh and unfair in its dealings with the Soviet Union.

 

  1. Republicans – Confident they were going to win and nominated Governor Thomas E. Dewey of NY.

 

  1. Dewey coasted. Truman hit the campaign trail by train, delivering dozens of “give ‘em hell” speeches – blasted the “do-nothing” Republican controlled Congress.

 

–  Won one of the greatest upsets in American history:

 

–  Truman 24 million and 303 to Dewey’s 22 million and 189.

 

–  Thurmond carried four southern states (SC, AL, MS, and LA) and got 39 electoral votes.

 

–  Wallace – 1 million and zero.

 

  1. Factors in Truman’s victory:

–        Strong support from blacks and labor unions

–        Republican overconfidence

–        Many southerners still remained loyal to the Democratic Party.

 

  1. Truman’s second term: the public mood started to turn sour, and Americans became increasingly anti-Truman. This mood shift occurred largely because of things that happened in Asia during Truman’s second term.

 

F. Japan: The American Success Story in Asia

 

  1. Japan was occupied by U.S. military forces and unlike the situation in Germany, we did not have to share authority with other countries. The U.S. ran Japan.

 

  1. Much of the credit for success in post-war Japan must be give to the American commander, Gen. Douglas MacArthur. Was an extremely self-confident man who was tall and impressive and made a great impression on the Japanese people.

 

  1. Major changes that occurred during the American occupation:

 

–        Status of the emperor:  acting on instruction from MacArthur, Hirohito issued a statement in January 1946 saying, in effect, that he was not a god. To emphasize his human status, Hirohito was required to visit MacArthur every week.

 

–        MacArthur and his staff wrote a new constitution for Japan which brought about a number of important reforms in the country: granted Japanese women the right to vote and renounced war as an instrument of national policy. (Military forces were to be maintained strictly for the self-defense of Japan.)

 

–        American occupation ended in 1952 and by that time Japan was well on its way to recovering from the war and becoming a new industrial giant. One of the keys: very little of Japan’s wealth is devoted to military spending! Japan has enjoyed the umbrella of American military protection.

 

G. China – The great failure, if you want to call it that, was the fall of China to the communists. Not really sure this should be called an American failure as it is not at all certain that there was anything the U.S. could have done to prevent this situation. To say it another way, do not believe there is anything any American president, Democrat or Republican, could have done to “save” China.

 

  1. China Before World War II – Facts in Brief:

 

–        1911 – A revolution led by Dr. Sun Yat-sen and the Nationalist Party overthrew the Manchu dynasty of Chinese emperors.

 

–        1925 – Dr. Sun died and leadership taken over by Chiang Kai-shek. Bitter opponent of the communist movement and his government executed thousands of Communists.

 

–        Several thousand Communists led by Mao Tse-tung managed to escape to northern China where Mao built up a strong following among members of the peasant class.

 

–        Both communists and Nationalists fought against the Japanese during World War II.

 

  1. China after World War II – After the defeat of Japan, civil war broke out in China between the Nationalists and the Communists.

 

The Marshall Mission: December 1945 Truman sent General George C. Marshall to China to try to work out a settlement between Nationalists and Communists. Marshall could not accomplish a settlement because neither side was interested in compromise. Both wanted total victory. Marshall eventually returned to the U.S. to become Secretary of State in January 1947.

 

 

–        Meanwhile millions of Americans supported Chiang Kai-shek and the Nationalists, even though his government was extremely corrupt and had little support in the countryside among Chinese peasants.

 

–        Despite American financial and military aid to the Nationalists, the Communists won one victory after another.

 

–        Chiang’s forces finally defeated in the fall of 1949 and the Communists in October 1949 proclaimed the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China.

 

–        Chiang and his remaining forces fled to island of Formosa (Taiwan) and continued to insist that they were the true China (Republic of China).

 

–        1950 China and the Soviet Union entered into a military alliance, and all of this created shockwaves in the U.S.; millions of Americans lived in fear of global Communist domination.

 

–        The fall of China to the Communists was a “body blow” to the Truman administration. Many believed that we should have done more to “save” China, and the Republicans quickly took advantage of this situation. Republican politicians endlessly accused Truman and the Democrats of “losing” China to the Communists.

 

–        This accusation is unfair in my estimation. Nothing short of massive American military involvement could possibly have saved China and American taxpayers would not have supported that. And even had we done that, there is no guarantee that the Nationalists would have won.

 

As our later experiences in Vietnam would prove, massive American aid cannot save a corrupt government that does not have the support of its own people.

 

 

 

H. Korea

 

  1. Facts in Brief:

 

–        During closing months of WWII, the Soviets overran much of the northern portion of Korea, and after the war it was decided to divide Korea “temporarily” along the 38th parallel. Just an arbitrary division line.

 

–        Korea then became the Germany of the Far East: U.S. would not accept any agreement that might lead to communist control; the Soviet Union would not accept any agreement that would lead to a pro-western Korea.

 

–        The two went their separate ways.

 

–        Soviets and North Koreans organized the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea – Kim Il Sung

 

–        U.S. and South Korea organized the Republic of Korea – Syngman Rhee

 

  1. War – That is where the Korean situation stood when on June 25, 1950 several hundred thousand North Korean troops crossed the 38th parallel and invaded South Korea. Apparently had received the prior approval of the Soviet Union and China.

 

–        U.S. taken completely by surprise and had only a few hundred military advisers stationed in South Korea.

 

 

  1. Truman’s Response

 

–        Authorized use of American airpower (based in Japan) to bomb North Korean targets

 

–        Secured the passed of a U.N. Security Council resolution calling on all U.N. members to assist South Korea. Eventually 16 nations contributed forces but over 90% were American and South Korean.

 

–        June 30, 1950, Truman authorized use of American ground forces in Korea.

 

–        Our initial purpose: to stop the North Korean invasion and maintain the independence of South Korea.

 

  1. Stages of the Korean War:

 

–        American and South Korean troops pushed down to the “Pusan perimeter”

 

–        American and South Korean troops counterattack at Inchon on west coast of South Korea. September 15, 1950. North Koreans taken by surprise and retreat back across the 38th parallel.

 

–        MacArthur authorized to use his troops north of the 38th parallel, and MacArthur started promising to “have the boys home by Christmas.”

 

–        War objective became the liberation of North Korea – all of Korea to be brought under control of Rhee’s government

 

–        As American and South Korean troops approach the Yalu River, the Chinese began slipping hundreds of thousands of “volunteers across the river into North Korea.

 

–        Late November 1950 Chinese began “human wave” attacks and pushed American and ROK forces back across the 38th parallel.

 

During this period when UN forces were being driven back by the Chinese and North Koreans, Truman removed MacArthur as UN commander on April 11, 1951. This step taken by the President because MacArthur had become increasingly outspoken in criticism of the Truman administration and its methods of waging the war. MacArthur wanted to bomb bases in Manchuria, blockade Chinese ports, “unleash” Chiang’s forces etc. Truman, in contrast, believed that Western Europe was the main prize to be won or lost, and did not want to become entangled in a massive land war in Asia. A full-blown war in Asia might tempt the Soviets to send their divisions and tanks into Western Europe.

 

 

–        Several times truce talks were held between the two sides during Truman’s presidency, but they always failed, in part, because of the POW issue.

 

–        Fighting continued in the area around the 38th parallel until a truce signed in 1953.

 

–        As the fighting continued and American casualties increased, with no end in sight, Americans became increasingly frustrated with this war. Many had difficulty understanding the concept of fighting a limited war. 

 

I. McCarthy and McCarthyism – Just who was Joseph McCarthy?

 

  1. A Wisconsin politician who had served as an intelligence officer in Marine Corps in South Pacific during WWII.

 

–        He began running for U.S. Senate while still in service by exaggerating his military service. Articles and pictures sent back to Wisconsin newspapers. He was a Marine Corps intelligence officer whose main job was to debrief pilots after they returned from missions, but his stories made him appear to be a two-fisted, fighting war hero.

 

–        Elected to the Senate in 1946 and compiled an unimpressive record and by 1950 was looking for some issue to use to promote his reelection in 1952. The communist-in-government issue was the perfect vehicle.

 

 

  1. February 9, 1950 – Wheeling, WVA – Delivered a speech to a women’s Republican club and claimed he had a list with the names of 205 communists who were working in the State Department.

 

–        Where did this charge come from? Actually, from something done by the Truman administration.

 

–        Truman created a loyalty program for the federal government in 1946 to weed out any federal employee who might be disloyal to the U.S. (Eventually about 378 employees dismissed out of a total of about 3 million, though none was a member of the Communist Party).

 

–        While the loyalty program was being carried out, officials in the State Department sent a letter to Truman in 1948 saying charges of one kind or another had been made against 284 employees of the State Department (but did not say what kind of charges!). 79 had been dismissed.

 

–        Two years later, McCarthy found a copy of the letter written in 1948 and did a little “fuzzy” math:  284 minus 79 equals 205 communists in the State Department!

 

–        Never showed his list to anyone, and his numbers varied, sometimes 79, sometimes 57, but for years to come he made reckless charges of Communist Party membership and communist sympathies against dozens of people. Never uncovered one single card-carrying communist in the federal government, but his reckless charges ruined the reputations and lives of many innocent people.

 

–        Some were individuals who had criticized different aspects of American foreign policy but that does not mean you are disloyal and certainly does not mean you are a communist.

 

–        Term McCarthyism became a part of our language: to smear someone by bringing wild, unsubstantiated charges against them.

 

  1. Republican response: Many Republicans at the time realized that McCarthy was a fraud, that he was making wild accusations that he could not possibly prove, but at the same time they were willing to stand behind him and use his charges to blast and discredit the Democrats.

 

–        And it worked. Through the combination of Korean war-weariness, communist victories in China, and McCarthy’s reckless charges of communist influence at home, by 1952 Truman’s approval rating was down to 26%.

 

 

J. Election of 1952

 

  1. Truman could have run again, but did not. Governor Adlai Stevenson of Illinois. (VP candidate: Senator John Sparkman of Alabama)

 

  1. Republicans chose Gen. Dwight Eisenhower and Senator Richard Nixon.

 

  1. Republican strategy: Eisenhower would take the high road, Nixon (as he would do throughout his career) would take the low road.

 

  1. Democrats responded with a charge against Nixon that led to what became known as the “Checkers” speech that salvaged his career – at least for the time being. But “Checkers” came back to haunt Nixon during the Watergate crisis.

 

  1. And then there was also John Foster Dulles … Eisenhower’s chief foreign policy advisor who promised bold, new Republican policies that would lead to the roll back of the Soviet  empire in Eastern Europe