A SEARCH FOR ORDER, 1880-1920
Economic and Social Disruption
Rapid Industrialization
Corporations
Urbanization
Immigration
Economic Changes
Rural Farming Community-Industrial Urban Society
Pre 1865: Labor Intensive, Small Scale, Community
Post1865: Capital Intensive, Large Scale, Corporate
Nature of Work and Workplace Changes
Independent Artisan to Assembly Line Worker
Family to Factory
Quality to Quantity
Loss of Control
Loss of Life
In Response to the Organization of Capital
(Monopolies, Trusts, Holding Companies)
The Organization of:
Labor-Unions
Farmers-Populism
Middle Class and Small Business-Progressivism
ORGANIZED LABOR
War between Labor and Capital
Great Railroad Strikes of 1877
Union Movement
Knights of Labor (1869)
Organize All Workers
Boycott Not Strike
Cooperative System
Haymarket Square Bombing 1886
American Federation of Labor (1886)
Samuel Gompers and Craft Unionism
Organize Skilled Industrial Worker
Strike
Embrace Industrial Capitalism
Industrial Workers of the World (1905)
One Big Union
Class War/Revolution
Red Scare of World War I
Legacy
Forced Reforms in Workplace
Created Debate about the Role of Government
Created Fear of Political Revolution
Limited Membership in Unions (U.S. and Europe)
Overproduction/Cost of Production
Tax/Debt
Alienation
Farmers Alliance Movement, 1877-1892
State Farmers Alliance
railroads and cooperative exchanges
National Farmers Alliance and Industrial Union
Ocala Demands
Direct Election of Senators
Progressive Income Tax
Sub-Treasury Plan
The People’s Party (Populist Party)
Presidential Election of 1892
Depression 1893-1894
Mid-term Election of 1894
Gold vs. Silver
Presidential Election of 1896
Republican Party: William McKinley
Democratic Party: William Jennings Bryan
Populist Party: ???
Legacy: Set political agenda for the next forty years
Political Expression of Economic Interests
Cooperative Commonwealth
Socially produced/socially owned
Christian Utopian Socialism/ Scientific Socialism
Political Results, 1900-1912
1,200 public offices in 340 cities held by Socialists
79 mayors in 24 states, one congressman
Debs receives over 400,000 votes in 1904/1908
Debs receives over one million votes in 1912
RESPONSE
Social Darwinism (Horatio Alger stories)
Progressivism (regulate to avoid revolution)
Authoritarian: Private Power of Corporation
Democratic: Public Power of Government
Muckrakers: City=Progress and Poverty/Corruption
How the Other Half Lives/Triangle Fire
Progressive Reformers
Robert LaFollette and the Wisconsin Idea
Theodore Roosevelt and the Square Deal
Roosevelt’s Presidency, 1901-1908
Goals: Remake Republican Party/Regulate Economy
J.P. Morgan / Coal Strike
1904 Election: Square Deal
Herbert Croly and The Promise of American Life
Government As Active Agent
Taft’s Presidency, 1908-1912
Reform and regulate
Old Guard Republicans
Election of 1912
Republican: Taft (R) Progressive: Roosevelt
Democrat: Wilson
Socialist: Debs
Wilson’s Presidency, 1912-1916
End of Reform Spirit: World War I
THE SEARCH FOR ORDER ABROAD
American Diplomacy In
The Age of Imperialism, 1880-1920
Pre-Civil War Diplomacy
Free Security
Continentalism
Exceptionalism
Post-Civil War Diplomacy
The Significance of the Frontier in Am. History
Industrialization (production exceeds consumption)
Social Darwinism (The Influence of Sea Power)
Manifest Destiny (Our Country)
Spanish-American War, 1898
Cuban Revolution
Yellow Press
de Lome letter
U.S. Maine
Declaration of War and the Teller Amendment
War: Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico and Cuba
Year Long Debate over territories
Filipino-American War, 1901-1903
Roosevelt Foreign Policy, 1901-1908
Corollary to Monroe Doctrine
Latin America (Dictators for Democracy)
Woodrow Wilson and the Diplomacy of Principle
The Great War, 1914-1918
American Neutrality
British Propaganda and Cultural Relationship
Economic Relationship ($2 billion to Allies)
Prejudice Against Germany
Radical Ideology, Alcohol and U-Boat Attacks
Lusitania
Election of 1916: Progressivism and Peace
Sussex Pledge
Road To War
U-Boat Attacks
Zimmermann Note
Russian Revolution
To Make The World Safe For Democracy
(vote: 82-6 in Senate; 373-50 in House)
Democracy At Home
Committee on Public Information
Alien and Sedition Acts (security or politics)
Democracy Abroad
Fourteen Points (League of Nations)
Treaty of Versailles
European Politics
Domestic Politics
THE CULTURAL WARS, 1920-1925
Old vs. New America
Community—Society
Family—Factory
Church—City
Threat of Science: Darwin, Marx, and Freud
Expressions of Cultural Wars
Red Scare: The Passing of the Great Race (WASP)
Immigration Act of 1924
Ku Klux Klan
Eugenics Movement
Prohibition: Organized Crime
Fundamentalism: The Scopes Trial
America’s Business Is Business, 1925-1929
Economic Growth
Consumer Spending
Advertising
Credit
Stock Market Boom (symbol)
Economic Problems (loss of purchasing power)
Agricultural Depression
Technological Unemployment
Decline in Industrial Wages
Trade with Europe
Stock Market Crash (symbol)
THE GREAT DEPRESSION
Role of Government (crisis of 1873, 1886, 1893)
Herbert Hoover (R) 1928-1932
Work Ethic
Balance Budget
Bonus Army
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (D) 1932-1945
New Deal
Bank Holiday (FDIC)
Home Owners Loan Corporation
Civilian Conservation Corps
Works Progress Administration
Social Security
National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act)
Rural Electrification Act
Legacy
Corporate Capitalism
Political Coalition
Government as Active Agent in Society
Civil Rights
UNITED STATES DIPLOMACY, 1920-1940
ISOLATIONISM VS. INTERNATIONALISM
Mood of the Country
Depression
Lack of Military Power
Anti-War Sentiment
War Fought For Profit Not Principle
Kellogg-Briand Pact (Pact of Paris, 1928)
Anti-War Lobbies and Pact
Moral Obligation
Nye Investigation, 1934-1937
Neutrality Legislation, 1935-1937
Arms Embargo
Loans Embargo
Travel at Own Risk
International Events
Japan Invades Manchuria
Italy Invades Ethiopia
German Aggression (Rhineland and Austria)
Munich Agreement (Appeasement) 1938
Gallup Poll revealed that 97% reject war
Germany Invades Poland 1939
U.S. Reaction: Shoot on Sight and Cash and Carry
Japanese Aggression (China and Southeast Asia)
Pearl Harbor
WORLD WAR II DIPLOMACY AND
THE ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR
Roosevelt’s Diplomatic Goals
United Nations
International Monetary Co-Operation
Obstacles to Goals
Military Reality
“Wilson’s Shadow”
Key Figure
Joseph Stalin and the U.S.S.R.
Diplomatic Problems
Second Front
Eastern Europe
Pacific War
(Yalta Conference)
Harry Truman (D) 1945-1952
Atomic Bomb
Legacy: Nature of Diplomacy and War Change
THE COLD WAR
CONTAINMENT ABROAD
Diplomatic Leaders: Truman and Stalin
Motivation of Leaders: Ideology or Nationalism
George Kennan and Containment Policy
Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan, 1947
Berlin Airlift, 1948
Communist Spy Rings and “Loss” of China, 1949
Soviet Bomb, 1950
Korean War, 1950-1953
H-Bomb and Arms Race, 1951-
Duck and Cover M.A.D. Brinksmanship
Containment At Home
(Second Red Scare)
H.U.A.C. and Hollywood
Joe McCarthy and McCarthysim
THE SIXTIES
Political Reform Movements
Union Movement
Populism
Progressivism
New Deal
Sixties
Neo-Conservatism
The Generation Gap
Parents: Fear of another war Fear of another Depression
Values that shaped the two generations:
Parents: Depression World War II= sacrifice, discipline, work
Kids: Economic growth, suburbia, college=fulfillment, freedom
Ethical work
Goal: Be Happy—through the The Rules
“The important thing is to create an island of order in a sea of chaos” Man in the Grey Flannel Suit
Corporation becomes dominant institution in the country
To get along, go along/follow the rules/network/fit in/conform
Cold War
McCarthyism
Economic Success
GNP doubled
Middle class increases from 9% to 33%
25% of all homes in the country built in one decade
White Collar workers make-up 60% of workforce
Suburban communities increase by over 50%
A Generation in Search of Itself
Gentleman’s Agreement
Death of a Salesman
All The King’s Man
A Streetcar Named Desire
High Noon
From Here to Eternity
The Crucible
On The Waterfront
Rebel Without a Cause
On The Beach
The Apartment
Books, 1946-1950
The Seven Story Mountain
Moral Man Immoral Society
The Organizational Man
The Lonely Crowd—inner directed vs. other directed personality
The Origins of Totalitarianism
Growing Up Absurd
Catcher in the Rye
The Hidden Persuaders
The Status Seekers
Catch-22
The Graduate
Failure of Reconstruction: 14th and 15th Amendments; Segregation and Violence Catalysts for challenging Segregation: Role of Government; World War II and Holocaust; Baseball; Dixiecrat Movement; Military
Southern White Response to Brown: Massive Resistance
Ku Klux Klan and the White Citizens Council
Southern Black Response to Brown:
Non-Violent Civil Disobedience
Martin Luther King and S.C.L.C.
Political ends through spiritual means
Morality Play Shame the Enemy
1956: Autherine Lucy denied entrance to University of Alabama
1957: Central High School Little Rock High School
1959: Virginia closes many of its public schools
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT, 1960-1965
1960: Sit-Ins and the creation of S.N.C.C.
Non-Violent Direct Action
Media and the Middle Class
1961: Freedom Rides (C.O.R.E. and S.N.C.C.)
Television
1962: James Meredith and the University of Mississippi
1963: King “Letter from Birmingham City Jail”
“A just law is a man made code that squares with moral law or the law of God. An unjust law is a code that is out of harmony wit the moral law.”
Medgar Evers murdered (Voters Registration Drive)
Civil Rights Rally and “I have a Dream” speech
Bombing in Birmingham four children murdered
1964: Mississippi Freedom Summer and Deaths of Cheney Goodman and Schwerner
1965: “Bloody Sunday” Selma to Montgomery Freedom March
Results: Civil Rights and Voting Rights Acts
Inspires student activism
Moral Imagination at Work
STUDENT ACTIVISM, 1960-1965: THE NEW LEFT
CATALYSTS
Social/Moral: Civil Rights Movement (S.N.C.C.)
Personal Witness and Moral Confrontation
Intellectual: C. Wright Mills—The Power Elite, Letter To The Left
(Old Left: urban, working class adults, look to Europe
New Left: college, students, look inward to America)
Political: Cold War/Duck and Cover, McCarthyism
Anti-anti-communism
Challenge: Election of John Kennedy: The New Frontier
Cold War Events: Duck and Cover and Missile Crisis
STUDENTS AS SUB-CULTURE
First generation not born in a culture of scarcity, raised in a culture of abundance; consumer spending driven by their birth and growth
College: separate space re-enforces special social status (one in four Americans between the age of 21 to 24 in college; fifty per-cent of the country under the age of thirty in 1965)
THE NEW LEFT
Students For A Democratic Society (S.D.S.)
The university as an institution for social and political change
The Port Huron Statement and the call for a New Left and participatory democracy to counter the military-industrial complex
The Free Speech Movement at the University of California at Berkeley: Mario Savio
New Left Goals
End institutional racism
End poverty (Michael Harrington’s The Other America)
End Cold War diplomacy of M.A.D. and McCarthyism
Methods
Non-violent Direct Action, Education, Vote
Results, 1962-1965
Civil Rights and Voting Rights Acts
The War on Poverty
A Moral Imagination
Three Stages of Liberalism (belief in personal liberty, human progress, the pursuit of rational self-interest as the basis of a free society)
Laissez-Faire Liberalism: economic freedom and limited government
Reform Liberalism: threat of excessive corporate power must be checked by state intervention
Rights-Based Liberalism: move from economic concerns to focus on the rights and freedoms of individuals and groups
War on Poverty:
Economic Opportunity Bill
Job Corps
Head Start
VISTA
Medicare
Medicaid
National Education Act
N.A.S.A.
Urban Renewal Projects (CAPS)
Clean Air and Water Acts
National Endowment for the Arts
National Endowment for the Humanities
“A place where men are more concerned with the quality of their lives than the quantity of their goods.”
WAR ON POVERTY-WAR IN VIETNAM
French Indochina, 1890-1945
Ho Chi Minh and Independence Movement
Republic of Vietnam, 1945-1946
French return, 1946-1954
Geneva Accords 1954
Divide country along 17th
Hold Elections in two years
Cold War and Vietnam
President Eisenhower and Domino Theory
American Support, 1956-1963
President Kennedy Policies and Decisions
President Johnson Policies and Decisions
Containment, Credibility, Domestic Politics
WAR IN VIETNAM
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
Rolling Thunder
Ground War, 1965
Military Superiority
Technological Superiority (Agent Orange)
Anti-War Movement (protest to resistance)
THE YEAR 1968
Promises versus Pictures
JANUARY
Tet Offensive
The Credibility Gap
FEBRUARY
Eugene McCarthy challenges President Johnson
Ant-War Movement moves from Protest to Resistance
MARCH
New Hampshire Democratic Primary
McCarthy receives 42% of vote
Robert Kennedy enters race
President Johnson withdraws from race
APRIL
Martin Luther King murdered
Riots and Anti-War Demonstrations increase
MAY
The Promise of Robert Kennedy
JUNE
Robert Kennedy murdered
JULY
Troops at Khe Sanh reached; village then abandoned
AUGUST
Police Riot at Democratic Convention
SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER
Hubert Humphrey and War (promise of Peace Talks)
Richard Nixon and War (betrays Peace Talks)
AMERICA: LOVE IT OR LEAVE IT
1969: Trial of Chicago Eight (War on Trial)
Days of Rage
S.D.S. holds last convention
Weather Underground formed
Congressional Hearings on Conduct of War Held
Rescind Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
War in Vietnam
Ho Chi Minh dies
Vietnamization: Troop Reduction/Search and Destroy Missions
Hamburger Hill
“New” Soldier in Vietnam—Fragging incidents
My Lai (revealed in 1971)
Draft Deferments end (lottery system begins)
Life Magazine photo editorial
Kent State and Jackson State
Anti-War Movement Increases
Middle-Class Support Declines
1971: Publication of Pentagon Papers and Reports of My Lai
Generation Gap becomes Credibility Gap
1972: Henry Kissenger and Peace Talks; The Christmas Bombings
Church Committee Hearings on the C.I.A.
1973: Peace Accords Signed; Troops Leave
1974: U. S. Abandons South Vietnam
1975: North Invades, War Ends
1960-1963: Death of civil rights activists (Missile Crisis)
1963: Death of President Kennedy
1964: Death of Cheney Goodman and Schwerner
1965: Death of Malcolm X
1966-1967: Urban Riots
1968: Deaths of King and Kennedy
1969: Deaths of Black Panther leaders
1970: Deaths of students at Kent State and Jackson State
ACTIVISM ANARCHISM
Political revolution Cultural revolution
(Civil Rights Movement and War On Poverty abandoned)
System Self
Reject Middle Class Culture and Values of Parents
(generation gap—credibility gap—cultural gap)
Search For Values:
Social Status to Simplicity
Materialistic Life to Meaningful Life
Western Religion to Eastern Mysticism
Culture of Scarcity (order progress rationalism authority)
Culture of Affluence (instinct impulse emotions)
Cold War Corporate Consumer Culture: Parents and Kids
“I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed…”
PreCursors: Beats (Jack Kerouac and Frank Sinatra)
Jazz (Charlie Parker and Miles Davis)
Art (Abstract Expressionism and Pop Art)
Race (Ralph Ellison and James Baldwin)
1967: Summer of Love
1969: Woodstock/Charles Mason
1970: Altamont
Marketplace co-ops symbols as hedonism of consumer
culture becomes hedonism of counter-culture and the cultural contradictions of corporate capitalism.
Legacy
The Personal is Political
Meting Pot to Multiculturalism
Self-Exploration Self-Discovery Self-Empowerment
1970s Cultural Expressions:
Jonathan Livingston Seagull
Tom Wolfe and the Me Decade
“The Third Great Awakening”
Communal Societies
Evangelical Christianity
New Age
Ethnic Identity (non-WASP)
Economic Growth ends (OPEC oil embargo)
Youth Ends-first wave of Baby Boomers (family obligations and corrupt politics)
Early Civil Rights work: L.U.L.A.C. and American G.I. Forum
Viva Kennedy Clubs and 1960 presidential election
Cesar Chavez and the United Farm Workers
Harvest of Shame
Grape Strike (1965-1970)
March to Sacramento
Jose Angel Gutierrez/M.A.Y.O. and La Raza Unida 1967-1969
Immigration Act of 1965
WOMEN’S MOVEMENT
Cultural expectations of 1950s: Engage in Domesticity
Betty Friedan and The Feminine Mystique
President’s Commission on the Status of Women
National Organization for Women
Gloria Steinem and MS. Magazine/Our Bodies Ourselves
Title IX of the Educational Act of 1972
Equal Rights Amendment of 1972
Billie Jean King and the Battle of the Sexes
Roe v. Wade 1973
Phyllis Schlafly and the American Eagle Forum
Cultural expectations of the 1970s: End Domestic Violence
BLACK POWER MOVEMENT
Black Panthers 1968
Civil Rights Movement, North 1968-1970
National Welfare Rights Organization
Urban Riots, Long Hot Summers 1965-1969
F.B.I. and the destruction of the Panthers 1968-1970
AMERICAN INDIAN MOVEMENT
Termination Policy of the 1950s (end Reservation system)
Russell Means, Dennis Banks and Red Power
Alcatraz Island 1968
Sit-ins at the B.I.A. 1972
Wounded Knee 1973
Court Actions 1970-
GAY MOVEMENT
Stonewall Inn Rebellion 1969
Gay Liberation Front
Am. Psychiatric Association and Homosexuality/Mental Disorder
Coming Out
Court Actions 1970-
ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT
Senator Gaylord Nelson
Earth Day 1970
Clean Air and Water Acts 1970-1972
Environmental Protection Agency 1970
Endangered Species Act 1973
DEFINITION OF AMERICA (Identity Politics)
Melting Pot to Multiculturalism
Consensus to Cultural Nationalism
The Silent Majority
Peace With Honor (North Vietnam defeats South Vietnam)
Devolution Policies (Arts, EPA, Family Assistance Program)
Southern Strategy: Emerging Republican Majority
Political compromise over Civil Rights issues
Philadelphia Plan and Affirmative Action (Quotas)
Watergate (June 1972-August 1974)
Illegal use of federal agencies and defiance of Congress
August 9, 1974 Nixon resigns
Forty-one persons and twenty-five corporations found guilty
Watergate revelations
Illegal tactics to attack Democrats and the “enemies list”
Secret bombing of Cambodia
Telephone taps on federal employees and reporters
Break-in of Daniel Ellsberg’s psychiatrist’s office (bombing)
“Dirty Tricksters” political acts of sabotage (sexual improprieties
alleged against Senators Humphrey and Jackson, forging press
releases, associating racist remarks to opposition candidates
monies for the Tricksters collected illegally through CREEP
and directed by the White House staff)
Used CIA FBI and IRS to collect and intimidate opponents or
critics
Watergate Legacies
Un-elected President, Gerald Ford (pardons Nixon)
Congress challenges presidential authority
(support of South Vietnam)
Credibility Gap evolves into Cynicism
Re-affirms importance of independent press and court
Nixon, Kissinger and the World
Détente
Trip to China
U.S.S.R. and S.A.L.T.
Nixon Doctrine and the Middle East
America, Israel and Oil
Middle East Wars 1967 and 1973
O.P.E.C.
P.L.O.
Terrorism
Democracy and Dictators
Iran and Saudi Arabia
South Africa
Philippines
Pakistan
Chile
Ford Presidency, 1974-1976
Accidental Presidency
Presidential Pardon
Mayaguez
Stagflation
OPEC
Demographics
International Competition
W.I.N.
Radical Right challenges East Coast Leadership
Senator Barry Goldwater’s 1964 Presidential Bid
Party leadership separates itself from extremist groups
Young Americans For Freedom, 1964-1980
Party Realignment, 1960-1980
Conservative Democrats change party
Civil Rights, Cold War and Neo-Conservatives
Working Class change party
Governor George Wallace and the Politics of Rage
Race and Class and Resentment (counter-culture movement)
Economic Decline (OPEC and transition to service economy)
Political Left and the Democratic Party of 1972
Political Malaise and the Democratic Party 1976-1980
“Malaise” speech economy (Prop 13) Iranian Hostage crisis
Racial Politics
Reaction to the Civil Rights and Voting Rights Acts
Five Southern states vote for Goodwater in 1964
Nine Southern states vote for Wallace in 1968
Reaction to Court and Federal Race based policies
Busing (South Boston violence)
Affirmative Action (Nixon’s Philadelphia Plan)
Quotas (Bakke vs. Regents of the University of California)
The Republican Party’s Southern Strategy (Silent Majority)
Kevin Phillips, Emerging Republican Majority
Nixon promises to reduce desegregation efforts in the south
Recruit conservative Democrats (New Deal coalition)
Cultural Wars and the Religious Right
The Moral Majority (1980s) Christian Coalition (1990s)
Cultural issues: prayer abortion homosexuality secular humanism
MEMORY AND THE NARRATIVE OF THE SIXTIES
Ronald Reagan and the Crisis of Confidence
1980: 50.7% voted for Reagan (only received 28% of eligible vote, 53% of eligible voters cast a vote)
Ronald Reagan and the Politics of Culture
1984: 58. 4% voted for Reagan (52% of eligible voters cast a vote)
The Religious and Radical Right of the Republican Party use Sixties cultural markers to energize and organize voters.
The Politics of Nostalgia: History as Political Weapon
Control public memory of past events to justify contemporary criticism of society.
1950s versus 1960s
1950s: global dominance, personal satisfaction, social harmony, economic security, small government and family unity
1960s: military weakness, personal indulgence, social unrest,
economic decline, big government and family breakdown
Presidency of Ronald Reagan 1980-1988
Cut Taxes Anti-Communism Cultural Values
Domestic Policy:
Tax Reduction and Reduce size of Government
Supply Side Economics (Laffer Curve)
Arthur Laffer Jude Wanniski Jack Kemp
Work with Congress
Shooting by John Hinckley
Tax Bill: 23% tax reduction over three years
Reduce upper tax from 70% to 50%
Cut social programs Increase Defense Spending
PATCO Strike
S&L Bill (S&L scandal, cost taxpayers $132 billion)
Economic Results: deficit spending, debtor nation ($700 million to $3 trillion), reckless speculation (S&L scandal, market loses 23% of value Monday 1987), inflation decreases to 4.4 in 1989, unemployment decreases to 5.4 in 1989, slow but steady economic growth. Taxes were 19.4 of national income in 1980, 19.3 in 1989. Top tax rate dropped to 28%. CEO income was 25 times of hourly worker in 1960s, in 1980s, 93. Top one per cent held 22% of wealth, in 1989 held 39%.
Civil Rights: Southern Strategy
Abortion: ignored
Supreme Court: appointed three justices (first women)
AIDS/HIV: ignored between 1981-1986
Cultural Wars: ignored
1984 Election: Reagan vs. Mondale
Religious Right Claims Victory
Reagan Foreign Policy
Cold War Returns: The Evil Empire
From Détente to Confrontation
Increase in Defensive Spending
Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars)
Selective Response
Soviets shoot down Korean air liner (269/61 die)
Terrorist bombing in Beirut (241 die)
Hezbollah murders and kidnappings increase
Invade Grenada and Bomb Libya
U.S.-U.S.S.R. Relations
Soviet leadership 1982-1985
Mikhail Gorbachez
Nov 1985 first of five meetings with Regan
Oct 1986 eliminate all weapons in ten years but S.D.I.
Feb. 1987 eliminate weapons in Europe, visits
1988 reduce Soviet troops
1989 Berlin Wall and withdraw from Afghanistan
1990 Soviet system collapses
Dec. 1991 U.S.S.R. dissolves
Iran-Contra Scandal
1979: Sandinista defeat Somoza support of El Salvador
Boland Amendment (411-0)
N.S.C. ( John Poindexter and Oliver North) and
covert operations
Contras aided by arms deal to Iran (to release
hostages-increased kidnappings). Noriega and
Medelin drug cartel of Columbia smuggle in arms
Results: drugs, alienate L.A., expose C.I.A., imperial presidency